BAB 1 PENDAHULUAN DAN ETIKA SEBAGAI TINJAUAN

1. Pengertian etika

Istilah Etika berasal dari bahasa Yunani kuno. Bentuk tunggal kata ‘etika’ yaitu ethos sedangkan bentuk jamaknya yaitu ta etha. Ethos mempunyai banyak arti yaitu : tempat tinggal yang biasa, padang rumput, kandang, kebiasaan/adat, akhlak,watak, perasaan, sikap, cara berpikir. Sedangkan arti ta etha yaitu adat kebiasaan. Arti dari bentuk jamak inilah yang melatar-belakangi terbentuknya istilah Etika yang oleh Aristoteles dipakai untuk menunjukkan filsafat moral. Jadi, secara etimologis (asal usul kata), etika mempunyai arti yaitu ilmu tentang apa yang biasa dilakukan atau ilmu tentang adat kebiasaan

2. Prinsip-prinsip etika

1. Prinsip tanggung jawab terhadap pelaksanaan pekerjaan dan hasilnya

   terhadap dampak pekerjaab terhadap orang lain

2. Prinsip keadilan, tidak merugikan; membedakan orang lain.

3. Prinsip Otonomi

     Kebebasan sepenuhnya dalam menjalankan profesinya, tetapi dibatasi tanggungjawab dan     

     komitmen profesional dan  tidak mengganggu kepentingan umum.

4. Prinsip integritas moral yang tinggi.

    Komitmen pribadi menjaga keluhuran profesi

3. Basis teori etika

a.       Etika Teleologi

 Dari kata Yunani,  telos = tujuan, Mengukur baik buruknya suatu tindakan berdasarkan tujuan yang mau dicapai dengan tindakan itu, atau berdasarkan akibat yang ditimbulkan oleh tindakan itu.

Dua aliran etika teleologi :

 - Egoisme Etis

 - Utilitarianisme

* Egoisme Etis

Inti pandangan egoisme adalah bahwa tindakan dari setiap orang pada dasarnya bertujuan untuk mengejar pribadi dan memajukan dirinya sendiri. Satu-satunya tujuan tindakan moral setiap orang adalah mengejar kepentingan pribadi dan memajukan dirinya. Egoisme ini baru menjadi persoalan serius ketika ia cenderung menjadi hedonistis, yaitu ketika kebahagiaan dan kepentingan pribadi diterjemahkan semata-mata sebagai kenikmatan fisik yg bersifat vulgar.

* Utilitarianisme

berasal dari bahasa latin utilis yang berarti “bermanfaat”. Menurut teori ini suatu perbuatan adalah baik jika membawa manfaat, tapi manfaat itu harus menyangkut bukan saja  satu dua orang melainkan masyarakat sebagai keseluruhan. Dalam rangka pemikiran utilitarianisme, kriteria untuk menentukan baik buruknya suatu perbuatan adalah “the greatest happiness of the greatest number”, kebahagiaan terbesar dari jumlah orang yang terbesar.

b. Deontologi

Istilah deontologi berasal dari kata  Yunani ‘deon’ yang berarti kewajiban.

‘Mengapa perbuatan ini baik dan perbuatan itu harus ditolak sebagai buruk’, deontologi menjawab : ‘karena perbuatan pertama menjadi kewajiban  kita dan karena perbuatan kedua dilarang’. Yang menjadi dasar baik buruknya perbuatan adalah kewajiban.

Pendekatan deontologi sudah diterima dalam konteks agama, sekarang merupakan juga salah satu teori etika yang terpenting.

c. Teori Hak

Dalam pemikiran moral dewasa ini barangkali teori hak ini adalah pendekatan yang paling banyak dipakai untuk mengevaluasi  baik buruknya  suatu perbuatan atau perilaku. Teori Hak merupakan suatu aspek  dari teori deontologi, karena berkaitan dengan kewajiban. Hak dan kewajiban bagaikan dua sisi uang logam yang sama. Hak didasarkan atas martabat manusia dan martabat semua manusia itu sama. Karena itu hak sangat cocok dengan suasana pemikiran demokratis.

.

d. Teori Keutamaan (Virtue)

memandang  sikap atau akhlak seseorang.

Tidak ditanyakan apakah suatu perbuatan tertentu adil, atau jujur, atau murah hati dan sebagainya. Keutamaan bisa didefinisikan  sebagai berikut : disposisi watak  yang telah diperoleh  seseorang dan memungkinkan  dia untuk bertingkah laku baik secara moral.

Contoh keutamaan :

a.     Kebijaksanaan

b.    Keadilan

c.     Suka bekerja keras

d.    Hidup yang baik

4. Egoism

Egoism adalah suatu bentuk ketidak-pedulian kepada orang lain. Namun individualism menginginkan kebebasan dalam diri seseorang tanpa ada sekat yang mengkerangkeng. Artinya, penghargaan terhadap diri bukan berarti tidak abai terhadap orang lain. Sebaliknya, melalui pemahaman dan perhatian terhadap diri, ia akan berusaha memperhatikan orang lain.

Nama : Seftina Lycencia 
NPM : 24209556
Kelas : 4EB06

Health Advice

The interaction between grapefruit juice and some medications can cause negative effects, especially on kidney level, and sometimes it can be fatal. A woman that uses birth control pills and then suddenly drinks too much grapefruit juice can get pregnant because this juice makes the effects of the pills disappear.

Grapefruit juice is not indicated to drink while taking anti-depressing medication, antibiotics and medicine for cardio-vascular diseases. A person that takes anti-depressives and adds to that grapefruit in huge quantities can feel that he has all of a sudden too much or too little energy, depending on the pills taken. Combining it with antibiotic can cause stomach sickness or can extend the illness you are taking medication for because the antibiotics will diminuate their effect. Heart drugs don’t work anymore, the blood pressure stays up and the heart beat irregularly. For those that love grapefruit juice, witch is more concentrated than the fruit itself, a recommendation would be to restrain from drinking it while they are taking medication.

Doctors try to raise attention upon avoiding and combating the combination of grapefruit with medicine especially because in some diets grapefruit juice is recommended in huge quantities.

Grapefruit is benefic to organism if used properly. It belongs to that class of aliments that burn calories, because it takes more calories to digest them than they have. Eating the fruit is not a problem, nor is drinking a glass of juice once in a while. The problem appears where human reasoning disappears. Wanting to loose more weight faster, people weaken their bodies and eat only grapefruits. It is efficient for a diet, but it also loosens the imunitary system. They become more vulnerable, more tired and nervous and if taking any medications they are risking their health in this combination.


Comment:
So use this aliment wisely, go ask a specialist of its precise effects in your case and don’t abuse drinking grapefruit juice. Abusing something has never brought anything good, and it won’t in this case either. If you want to go on with your diet and keep your health find an alternative solution or make sure this does not affect your organism.

Things You Need to Know Before You Buy Digital Camera

Digital cameras come in many sizes, colors, brands, zooms, resolutions, playbacks, etc. There are so many features and qualities that are being placed in the devices that buyers especially first timers become overwhelmed and dizzy with these outstanding arrays of gadgets. This is even without including the various advertisements and different ratings that are used to promote these products.

So what are the things to look for if you want to buy digital camera? To be able to answer these, there are 2 sets of information you have to know before you can decide. The first type of information is defining what YOU need and want in a digital camera. To do this, you can ask yourself the following questions:

- What do you want to take with your digital camera? Before you buy digital camera, it is important to determine what kind of pictures you want to take with it. If you are a digital photography enthusiast, any digital camera will not just do. You have to look for features that can support the zooming you need, the resolution, etc.

- How much is your budget? This is a very important question any person who intends to buy digital camera should ask. Because no matter what your needs and wants are for the device, your financial resource will play a huge part in dictating the type of digital camera you will buy.

- What are you resources? When you buy digital camera, sometimes the spending does not end there. You also have to consider the capacity and the power of the computer and the printer you will be hooking your camera with for your editing and printing needs. Editing software are already included when you buy digital camera but other devices aren’t. Aside from a printer, ink and paper for printing, you might also need additional memory cards for your camera and a more powerful computer to support image editing and image storage and retrieval.

After answering these 3 questions, the second set of information you need to know before you buy digital camera are the features that you need in the device. These are:

- Resolution. Before you buy digital camera, check first its capacity to produce high quality photo images. The number of pixels indicated determines resolution. The more number of pixels, the higher the resolution which can make photos to be enlarged without losing image quality.

- Built-in memory. Digital cameras need memory cards for picture storage. When you buy digital camera, make sure that the gadget that you buy does not only have a “built-in” memory but should also have a card slot for external and additional memory. This allows you to change full memory cards conveniently while shooting your pictures.



- Look and feel. It is essential for you to feel comfortable holding your digital camera while shooting. So, before you buy digital camera, it good to test and check if you are comfortable holding it and using it. Consider where the buttons are located and how they are spaced out and see also if you feel comfortable using the viewfinder.

- Battery life. Digital cameras use up batteries fast and batteries are expensive. Before you buy digital camera, consider if the camera’s batteries are rechargeable. This way you can recharge them. Take also into consideration an AC adapter when you buy digital camera. You can attach this to the camera when you are viewing your pictures or uploading them

- LCD. The LCD is a special consideration you have to look into when you buy a digital camera. This is a small screen located at the back of a digital camera that allows you to preview the pictures you took. This has to be considered when you buy digital camera because it uses up a lot of battery power.

- Special features. Special features that will suit your needs should be thought about, too before you buy digital camera. If you want your camera to have good zooming, you can opt for those with optical zoom lenses. A diopter adjustment on the digital camera’s viewfinder will also be beneficial to those who regularly wear glasses and wish to buy digital camera. Other features such as remote control, tripods, etc. can also be considered when you buy a digital camera.



comment : With these information, you can now figure out what you really need and want before you buy digital camera. If you want to see ratings and rankings of these devices based on price, resolution or other features, check out various websites that have these in the Internet.

herbs

Herbs are the culinary and medicinal plants. These are the low-growing aromatic plants which are used fresh or dried for seasoning, for their medicinal properties, or in perfumes. There are a wide variety of herbs such as super kelp, garlic, parsley, green tea extract, horse chestnut, milk thistle and oregano oil.

Herbs are very useful in strengthening the body and in treating the diseases. However they contain active substances that can trigger side effects and interact with other herbs, supplements, or medications. So, they should be taken on the advice of an herbal practitioner.

Super Kelp
Super kelp (also known as “Sea kelp” and “Sea wrack”) is a sea herb that is one of the best sources of natural iodine and trace elements. It is also used as the principle agent in cures for obesity. In addition, it cleans out the kidneys and stimulates the thyroid and pituitary gland to produce growth hormones.

Garlic
Garlic is a natural anti-biotic and is used to disinfect wounds, treat ear infections, cholera and typhus. This herb is anti-fungal and anti-oxidant agent and can help lower cholesterol. It may also be beneficial for risk factors for heart disease, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes and cancer. The excess of garlic can cause upset stomach/flatulence, occupational asthma, postoperative bleeding, bloating, bad breath, body odor, and skin irritation. People with bleeding disorders should not use garlic.

Parsley
Parsley (Petroselinum) is one of the best known, diuretic and most nutritious herbs which contain large quantities of vitamins A, B, C and minerals calcium, iron, phosphorous, potassium and magnesium. It’s very useful for kidney and urinary problems and water retention. Its usefulness can be judged by the saying: “if parsley is thrown into fishponds it will heal the sick fishes therein”.

Green Tea Extract
Green tea extracts are one of the nature’s most powerful anti-oxidants. It helps prevent both heart disease and cancer by helping prevent vascular blood clotting and reducing cholesterol. It possesses antimicrobial properties that support immune-system health and protects against digestive and respiratory infections. The excess of green tea extracts may cause irritability, insomnia, heart palpitation, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, and loss of appetite.


Horse chestnut
Horse chestnut supports the vessels of our circulatory system and helps strengthen capillary cells and reduce fluid breakage. It is believed to be an excellent antioxidant to prevent wrinkles. It also helps in the treatments of phlebitis, varicosity and hemorrhoids.

Milk Thistle
Milk thistle has some active substances that helps maintain healthy liver function by protecting the liver from damage caused by viruses, toxins and alcohol. It is a herbal remedy for anthrax, asthma, bladder stones, cancer, catarrh, chest ailments, dropsy, fever, bleeding from the lungs or bronchia, hepatitis, rabies, jaundice, vaginal discharge, malaria, melancholy, piles, plague, pleurisy, spasms, and spleen and uterus problems. Taking excess of milk thistle may cause stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, rash or other skin reactions, joint pain, impotence, and anaphylaxis. It should not be taken in pregnancy and while nursing.
Oregano Oil
This herb has healing, antioxidant and anti-microbial properties. It is used to treat a mildly upset stomach, bronchitis, nervous tension, insect bites, rheumatism, earache, toothaches and even athlete’s foot. It is also useful in relieve bloating, gas, urinary tract problems, rheumatoid arthritis, swollen glands, and lack of perspiration. In addition, it is as powerful as ‘morphine’ as a pain killer.

comment:
of all the above, is very useful for us because it includes traditional drugs are not harmful to our bodies and a lot of benefits for our body.

Improving Rheumatoid Arthritis Symptoms

Rheumatoid arthritis is a disease where white blood cells suddenly attack healthy tissues, specifically joints and cartilage. There are a few ways to help ease the symptoms, depending on which stage of the disease you are in. If you are in the early stages of rheumatoid arthritis there is a new disease modifying anti-rheumatic drug (DMARD) which has done an excellent job in controlling symptoms. It works best in the initial stages, so if you suspect you may have rheumatoid arthritis, see your doctor as soon as possible.

There are other options if you are in later stages of rheumatoid arthritis. These are also helpful if you are still in early stages. One is to use anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen. This does a great job reducing pain and inflammation. However, these have side effects including heart problems and gastrointestinal bleeding. You can also use acetaminophen for your rheumatoid arthritis, which does not have these side effects.

When symptoms are mild, moderate exercising including stretching, weight lifting, and aerobics ease rheumatoid arthritis symptoms. Be sure to rest when your joints flare up as this would just add strain to your aching joints. Stretching is important because it increases flexibility and is easy enough to do at any age. When stretching, stop when you feel mild discomfort and hold for 10 to 30 seconds. Then repeat 3 to 5 times. Weight lifting also improves flexibility as well as strength and balance. Barbells are easy, convenient, and inexpensive. Remember to stretch before lifting any weights. Start with 3 sets of 8 to 10 repetitions. If you would like you can start with no weights at all (such as going leg lifts for rheumatoid arthritis in the knees), then add weights when you can. Lift the weights slowly and evenly to not damage the cartilage.

Some other popular forms of exercise for rheumatoid arthritis are aqua therapy and Tai Chi. Be sure to find an actual therapist as they have specific exercises they do for arthritis patients. Aerobics instructors may push to far and do further damage. Tai Chi has no long term studies proving its effectiveness, but due to testimonials from patients who have taken Tai Chi, the Arthritis Foundation began offering the class. Remember to always check with your doctor before starting an exercise program.

Some other ways to relieve rheumatoid arthritis pain are to lose weight to take additional pressure off joints, eating a healthy diet, getting enough sleep, using heat or ice, and possibly using devices such as a cane, brace, or splint. There are many resources for additional information on rheumatoid arthritis including websites, flyers, periodicals, books, etc. Your doctor should be able to provide you with some reference on where to look for additional help.

comment:
to prevent rheumatic slalu we should maintain our bodies, when they feel signs of rheumatic segerakan checked by a doctor, or taking medication for the first treatment.

soal soal reading

READING

Central Java
The wirst-hit flood area in the country this rainy season has been Central Java where people has been killed and tens of thousands evacuated.

The public works ministry estimated that it will need 14 bilion rupiah to reconstruct the bridges in Kali Kuto and Kali Desa, Central Java, and to repair a number of roads in the provibce. another 10.36 billion rupiah is need to repair irrigation facilities.

The minister of Public work, Radinal Mochtar, has instructed that repairs on damaged roads and bridges be completed before the Idul Fitri holidays at the end of March.

Radinal said he ordered the state-owned construction company PT adi Karya to begin the reconstruction innedietelly. He said he chose the frim because it is now working or projects in the area and has experience in handling similar kinds of repairs. The company rebuilt both the Kali Comal Bridge, which was damaged by floods three years ago, and the Kali Kuto Bridge, which was destroyed by floods two years ago.

the minister also said the damaged irrigation facilities in the regencies of demak, Kendal and Purwodadi might be repaired before the end of March, allowing farmers to meet tis year's planting schedules.

The agriculture Ministry Pledged to send seed and tools to farmers in East and Central java whose fields have been damaged by floods.

1. What was the minister of public works instruction?
a. to send seed and tools
b. to calculate the funds
c. to evacuate the victim
d. to take all the people away
e. to reconstruct the damaged thing

2. When should the damaged roads and bridge be finished?
a. in March
b. at the end of March
c. before the Idul Fitri holidays at the end of March
d. at the Idul Fitri holidays at the end of March
e. at the Idul Fitri holidays

3. Which one is true according to the text?
a. the goverment has paid attention to the victim of the flood
b/ to reconstruct the destruction of the foods needs a lot of funds
c. the flood happened in the west season
d. there is no one killed in the flood
e. the flood took place in Central Java

The northern and shoutern polar regions are different in many ways. The most important difference the concerns the distribution of land and water. The northern artic regions are ice-covered sea, almost completely surrounded by land. The pole itself is in deep water. In the south, Antartica is a huge continent which is surrounded by a great ocean. Because of this basic difference other difference occur. The Artic has varied climate, while the Antartic climate vaies little; the Artic has much plant life but the Antartic is an empty desert. And whereas the Artic has been exploited economically for centuries, trade has never really touched Antartica.

One reason for the present interest in both polar regions is that the world may soon be short of fresh water. The world's population is double in every 35 years, and the United States alone an average person uses about 1,500 gallons of fresh water a day. The ice in the northern and southern polar regions is actually frozen fresh water. In fact over 85% of the erath's entire fresh water is found in the polar ice. If we could find a way of carrying this ice to other parts of the world, this would solve all our fresh water problems. (taken from; Communicate in Writing p. 28b)

1. Which of following is not true the northern Artic..
a. ice-covered sea
b. no economic exploitation
c. surrounded by land
d. varied climated
e. much plant life

2. The main ideia of the first paragraph is...
a. the differences between Artic and Antartic
b. Trade has never really touched Antartica
c. the south Antartica is a huge continent
d. The Artic has varied climate
e. the northern Artic regions are ice-covered sea

3. Because of this basic difference other difference occur (paragraph 1). the word "occur" has similar meaning with...
a. appear
b. change
c. happen
d. emerge
e. create

Leonardo da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452 in Vinci, Italy. He was the illegitimate

son of Ser Piero, a Florentine notary and landlord, but lived on the estate and was

treated as a legitimate son.

In 1483, Leonardo da Vinci drew the first model of a helicopter. It did not  look

very much like our modern day “copter,” but the idea of what it could do was about

the same.

Leonardo was an artist and sculptor. He was very interested in motion and

movement and tried to show it in his art. In order to show movement, he found it

helpful to study the way things moved. One subject he liked to study was birds and

how they flew. He spent many hours watching the birds and examining the structure

of their wings. He noticed how they cupped air with their wings and how the

feathers helped hold the air. Through these studies, Leonardo began to understand

how birds were able to fly.

Like many other men, Leonardo began to dream of the day when people would be

able to fly. He designed a machine that used all the things he had learned about

flight, and thus became the first model of a helicopter.

Poor Leonardo had only one problem, however. He had no way to give the necessary

speed to his  invention. You see, motors had not yet been invented and speed was an

important part of the flying process. It would be another four hundred years before

the engine was invented and another fifty years before it was put to the test in an

airplane. Leonardo’s dream of a helicopter finally came to pass in 1936.

The Italian painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, and scientist, Leonardo died on

May 2, 1519, and was buried in t he cloister of San Fiorentino in Amboise.

Choose the right one :

1.      What is the author’s main point?

a.      The invention of the helicopter

b.      Birds cup air with their wings and use feathers to help hold the air

c.       An overview of one of Leonardo da Vinci’s many skills

d.      Leonardo Da Vinci was born in 1452 and died in 1519

2.      The word problem in paragraph five could best be replaced by the word :

a.      Dilemma

b.      Mistake

c.       Danger

d.      Pain

3.      The word it in paragraph two refers to :

a.       Leonardo Da Vinci

b.      The first model helicopter

c.       1483

d.      Motion and Movement

4.      Which paragraph explains why Leonardo’s helicopter was not succesful in his lifetime?

a.       Paragraph 1

b.      Paragraph 2

c.       Paragraph 4

d.      Paragraph 5

5.      The word illegitimate in paragraph one is closest in meaning to :

a.       Against the law or illegal

b.      Not in correct usage

c.       Incorectly deduced, illogical

d.      Born out of wedlock

6.      The following sentence would best complete which paragraph? “ Since then people have been living out Leonardo’s dream of flying”?

a.       Paragraph 3

b.      Paragraph 4

c.       Paragraph 5

d.      Paragraph 2

7.      What was the main problem with Leonardo’s invention?

a.      Motors were not yet invented

b.      The birds lost their feathers

c.       He was illegitimate

d.      He couldn’t draw

8.      The word they in the third paragraph refers to :

a.       The feathers

b.      The birds

c.       The studies

d.      The wings

9.      In what year was the first helicopter clown?

a.       1483

b.      1452

c.       1519

d.      1936

10.  The word thus in the fourth paragraph could best be replaced by

a.       Wings and beaks

b.      Feathers and talons

c.       Wings and feathers

d.      Cups and feathers

artikel bahasa inggris

PPATK FINDS 2,300 Suspect Bank Account Tied to Ofiicials

           

Denpasar. A financial transaction watchdog has found 2,300 potentially problematic bank accounts belonging to heads of regional administrations or their families, its former chairman said on Thursday.

            " It is not yet known whether there are any (illegally) fat accounts among them, " Yunus Husein said on the said on the sidelines of a seminar on regional financial management in Bali.

                 Yunus said hundreds of the suspected problematic accounts in the names of regional heads or their families were being investigated by The Financial Transaction Reports and Analysis Center (PPATK).

 Any iregularities in the accounts, he said, would be evident in the way the money was moved among them.

                " The Funds are usually only moved around between the accounts of the wife, their children or other relatives," Yunus said.

                He cautioned that not all of the suspicious accounts flagged necessarily involved coruption, and said the investigation would eventually make it clear which were innocent.

                Meanwhile, Isran Noor, the head of the Association of Municipality Governments of Indonesia (Apkasi), said regional leaders were now concerned that they could potentially be accused of coruption because of an administrative error. He said unjustified suspicion could damage their careers even if they were eventually cleared.

                "Once they have been summoned by the prosecutors' office or the police, the case gets compilcated and they can no longer work comfortably," Isran said.

                He also objected to the PPATK's surveillance of Bank Accounts, arguing that bank customers had the right to privacy.

                Yunus, however, said the PPATK had the legal authority to investigate suspicious accounts.

               He added that the PPATK never released names, and said that if any were leaked to the press, the information must have come from other sources.

                Meanwhile, a spokesman for The Corruption Eradication Comission (KPK), Johan Budi, said the comission had not yet received any reports from the PPATK regarding the suspicious bank accounts.

            He said that because the KPK was busy addresing a significant backlog of cases, the commision could not take the initiative to request a report from The PPATK.

            Among the cases currently under KPK Investigation are those of
nine high ranking officials at the Finance Ministry found to have unusually large balances in their bank accounts.

            The reports about the accounts in question also came from the PPATK.

            In february, the center said more than 1,800 questionably large bank accounts had been detected since 2003.

            These included 707 accounts held by civil servants, 89 by police officers, 12 by prosecutors, 17 by judges, 65 by lawmakers, and one by a KPK official.

Source : Jakarta Globe Newspaper

Comment :

Commission should be careful in handling this case. KPK should be able to distinguish between suspicious accounts and normal accounts. But, recently there was a new cases of misappropriation of funds by the head of the regional. Negative funds deviation is done by Salatiga Mayor for alternative road Salatiga-Semarang. When the investigation will be held, Mayor Salatiga suddenly sick and had to be at hospital untill he become well. KPK should not pity, it is just a camouflage for the long-running from law and given a little relief. KPK must also be clean of corruption. In order to move forward into the best institutions in Indonesia. Go KPK!